REPORT
Teaching
Listening and Speaking Strategies in Japan - CALLA style
Jill
Robbins
Foreign
and second language education in 21st century Japan is moving toward the
goal of learner autonomy. In this major paradigm shift, teachers are seen
as facilitators who allow students the freedom to choose what, how, when
and why they study. Yet, to use that autonomy effectively, learners need
to have both knowledge about the learning process and the tools to apply
that knowledge. This is the main reason for providing strategy training
in foreign language classes.
This
article describes a synthesis of approaches to teaching second language
learning strategies that I have developed in response to the special needs
of Japanese learners. I will demonstrate how these approaches can be applied
to listening and speaking lessons in a Japanese EFL classroom. This approach
is based on two decades of research and practice by a group of dedicated
educators. The most influential work in this area has been done by research
teams led by Chamot and O'Malley (1994). Based on their research they
have developed the CALLA approach, which integrates content-based language
instruction with metacognitive awareness of the learning process and learning
strategies. Another team of researchers led by Cohen (1998) developed
the Strategies-Based Instruction (SBI) approach, which integrates both
implicit and explicit instruction in strategies into the course content.
CALLA
"is an instructional model that integrates current educational trends
in standards, content-based language instruction, learning strategies,
and portfolio assessment" (Chamot, Barnhardt, El-Dinary & Robbins,
1999, p. 7). CALLA provides teachers with a task-based five phase instructional
design that helps them combine language, content, and learning strategies
in a carefully planned lesson. The five phases of CALLA lessons are:
Preparation
- activate background knowledge of strategies;
Presentation
- teacher models the use of the new strategy and explains how and when
to use it;
Practice
- students practice the strategy in class activities;
Evaluation
- students evaluate their use of the strategy and its effectiveness for
the task;
Expansion
- students extend the use of the strategy into new situations or tasks.
SBI makes
a distinction between language learning and language use strategies. Language
learning strategies are "the conscious thoughts or behaviors used
by learners with the explicit goal of improving their knowledge and understanding
of a target language" while language use strategies "help students
utilize the language they have already learned to whatever degree"
(Cohen 1994, p. 68). The need for language use strategies is apparent
to teachers at the college level in Japan, whose students have a vast
knowledge of English vocabulary but little or no experience in the type
of conversation in which that vocabulary might be used. This the speaking
strategies that I will demonstrate can be seen as language use strategies,
and the listening strategies can be classified as language learning strategies.
One aspect
of the SBI approach is to show how strategies can help at three points
in performing a language task: before, during, and after. This approach
allows students to separate the task into manageable elements. It is similar
in intent to the metacognitive approach to strategic learning illustrated
through a mountain climber's story in Chamot, Barnhardt, El-Dinary &
Robbins (1999, p. 89). The metacognitive approach separates a language
task into four main processes: Planning, Monitoring, Problem-Solving and
Evaluating. I have found explicit discussion of these processes a useful
way of teaching students how to analyze a task and apply the most appropriate
strategies to it. The SBI method shown below also promises to provide
a useful way of approaching a learning task.
Following is a lesson plan for a listening lesson that applies SBI and
CALLA:
Preparation
phase:
Ask students
to think of how they approach a listening task by having small groups
fill out a handout like the one shown. Have a representative from each
group report the strategies students already use in listening. Point out
the variety of strategies available and the element of choice - a strategic
learner can make an informed choice of strategy depending on the requirements
of the task and his or her individual learning style.
Talk
with your classmates. Imagine you have to listen to a news story in English.
What do you think about or do at these times? (possible answers given
in italics)
Before
listening
what
the story will be about (from previews or headlines)
While
listening
what
the point of the story is
After
listening
what
I think about the story
(Choose
someone from your group to report your answers to the class.)
Presentation phase:
Model the focus strategy
for performing a task similar to that which the students will tackle in
this lesson. "When I am driving and get stuck in a big traffic jam,
I sometimes try listening to the traffic report on the radio. I don't
try to understand everything that's said about all the places in the city.
I just listen casually until I hear the name of the road I'm on. Then
my ears perk up and I listen harder for what's keeping me from getting
where I want to go. This is selectively attending. I know what I need
to hear the most and I decide to only pay attention to that part. I'm
listening for the name of this road I'm on, then I listen harder."
Practice phase:
Remind students of
the strategies studied previously for before, during and after listening.
In small groups, ask the students to form groups, and give each group
a map with cities marked on it that are in the weather report. Ask each
group to listen for the weather in a specific city. Students should be
reminded to selectively attend while they are listening.
Evaluation phase:
Ask each group to
present the weather they heard for their city. If the group was able to
get all of the weather information, ask if they felt selectively attending
helped them.
Expansion phase:
Ask students to give
examples of other times and places when they selectively attend; for example,
when attendance is being taken or when waiting for a train. Suggest situations
in school where selectively attending can be helpful. Assign an outside
listening activity that requires selectively attending. Keep a poster
on the wall as shown in Figure 3 to remind students of the listening strategies.
Strategic Approach
to a Listening Task
Before listening
Set a goal
Activate background knowledge
Predict
While listening
Selectively attend
Make inferences
Use imagery
After listening
Clarify
Summarize
Elaborate
Personalize
Check goal
If time is limited,
these phases may be carried out during consecutive class sessions.
Next, I will demonstrate
a speaking-oriented lesson plan that I have used for a class in public
speaking. The lesson focus is mental preparation for giving a speech in
English. This lesson assumes that the class has prepared speeches and
will be giving them in the next class session. The strategies focused
on are Imagery and Self-Talk:
Preparation:
Use a worksheet such
as the one in Figure 4 with questions on how students have handled their
nervousness when they had to give a speech in previous classes. Discuss
the answers with students. Possible answers may be: I wrote out the speech
and memorized it; I read my speech from note cards. I tried to breathe
deeply. I closed my eyes and pretended I was alone. When students tell
a useful strategy, write it on the board and ask if this strategy worked
for them. Point out the variety of strategies and emphasize that particular
strategies may work for some and not work so well for other people.
Presentation:
Present a strategy
or two that students can use to help deal with their nervousness when
speaking in front of a group. There are two focus strategies for this
lesson: Self-talk and Imagery.
Model these by telling
a story. Mine is about giving a presentation to other teachers: "The
first time I had to give a presentation in front of a lot of other teachers,
I was really nervous. I made note cards and practiced my presentation
for a couple of friends the night before. I decided to imagine that I
was going to be calm and relaxed when I spoke to the teachers. I could
even pretend that they were just my friends sitting around my kitchen
table. I saw myself standing at the podium, speaking smoothly and clearly.
This is what we call "Imagery" - I use a positive image of myself
being successful in speaking.
Next, I told myself,
ÔJill, you can do it. Those people who give their presentations
at the conference are no different from you - I bet they get nervous,
too. You've practiced and you know what you want to say, just get up there
and say it! This is what we call ÔSelf Talk' Ð I tell myself
things that will give me a positive outlook. So, the day of the presentation
came and there was a terrible snowstorm! I made it to the conference center
by fighting the string winds and the blowing snow. Finally the time came
for my presentation and everyone was there to hear me, since the other
speaker for that time had canceled. I gave my presentation and afterward
everyone told me, ÔYou seemed so calm!' So, do you think my strategy
worked?"
1. What will you say
to yourself before you give your speech in our next class?
My self-talk:
[leave a box or space here]
2. Draw a picture
of what you will imagine before and during your speech.
[leave a box or space here]
(complete items 3-4 after delivering the speech)
3. What did you think
about during your speech? Did you have any images in mind? Did you do
anything special right before you began speaking?
4. What did you think
after seeing or hearing your speech? Are there any problems you observed?
What are they? How will you try to avoid them next time?
Practice:
Ask students to consider
the speech they will make in the next class. Have them write their positive
comments for self-talk on a worksheet such as the one shown in Figure
4. Ask students to form small groups, in which they compare their self
talk and give each other suggestions on how to make the suggestions more
positive. For example, tell students, "If your classmate says, "I
won't make any mistakes in pronunciation," how can you change that
to be a positive statement? Maybe "I will pronounce everything clearly
and correctly," Or, you could be realistic and say, "I will
speak as clearly and correctly as I can; if I do make any mistakes I won't
let them bother me, I'll just keep on talking."
Evaluation:
Videotape (or audiotape,
if video is not available) each student giving a speech. If students can
separate into smaller groups for the speaking, this will reduce some of
the pressure. Videotaping in more than one location allows for the speeches
to be completed in fewer lesson days. In the following class session,
set up the video player so students can watch it individually. Ask students
to complete the fourth section of the handout (Figure 5) after watching
or listening to their speech. Remind students that evaluation is an important
phase of strategy use because it gives us valuable information on whether
the strategies we used worked well or not. With this knowledge we can
make wiser choices in using strategies in the future.
After all students
have evaluated themselves, conduct a class discussion, or summarize the
comments students have made on worksheets to point out how students used
the strategies effectively to reduce the stress of making a speech.
Expansion:
Ask students to come
up with other situations in which they can use the strategies focused
on in this lesson. For example, before calling to make an appointment
or a reservation on the phone in English, one can use them to calm down
and plan what one will say. Other possible situations that might require
the use of these strategies for speaking are: When telling one's parents
bad news; when asking for special permission from a school official; when
giving instructions to junior club members. Remind students that part
of being a strategic learner is knowing when it's appropriate to apply
a previously practiced strategy to a new learning task. Give them an image,
such as a toolkit, to carry with them as they continue to pursue their
goals in learning English.
The author's research
on how learning strategies are taught in Japan (Robbins, 1999) suggests
that, while teachers are trying to create more learner-centered classes,
and provide some strategic training, there remains a need for more encouragement
of self-evaluation and monitoring. In creating the above lesson plans
I provided an example of how students can practice these valuable strategies.
I sincerely hope that this synthesis of approaches helps teachers to take
further steps in providing their students with the tools of more effective
learning.
References
Chamot, A. U., &
J. M. O'Malley (1994). The CALLA Handbook. White Plains, NY: Longman.
Chamot, A. U., S.
Barnhardt, P.B. El-Dinary, & J. Robbins (1999). The Learning Strategies
Handbook. White Plains, NY: Longman.
Cohen, A. (1998).
Strategies in Learning and Using a Second Language. New York: Addison
Wesley Longman.
Robbins, J. (1999).
East meets West - Approaches to Learner Autonomy. In Proceedings of
JALT 98, Japan Association for Language Teaching International Conference,
Omiya, Japan, November 21-23, 1998.
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